Atlantic Salmon in the Gulf of Maine

Atlantic Salmon

Salmo Salar

Austin Davis

Fish have always been a part of my life. Every year my dad and I would trek 12 hours to Ennis, Montana for an annual fishing trip with his friends and their families. Although, I loved the thrill of catching the brown trout and rainbow trout that inhabited the rivers we fished, it got old after a while. I can remember it was always a dream of mine to branch out an explore other rivers with bigger and stronger fish, particularly those that housed chinook and kokanee salmon. Additionally, salmon has always been a staple of my diet. As the famous fish fling of Pike Place Market demonstrates, seafood is a huge part of the culture of my hometown, Seattle, Washington; consequently, salmon seems to be a fan favorite. Still, aside from my fascination in these fish, they make up a large portion of U.S. seafood consumption, which itself is on the rise. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, salmon accounts for 16% of seafood consumption in the U.S.; this level of consumption is only behind shrimp at 27%.  Unfortunately, heavy consumption of Atlantic Salmon, among other things, has had a detrimental impact on these leaping sea creatures. Of particular concern are the Atlantic Salmon populations in the Gulf of Main (GOM).

Description and Ecology:

These silver-blue fish, which are coated along the sides with black dots are unique fish, even among other salmon species. On average they range from 8-10lbs in weight and 28-30in in length; although there have been multiple reported catches of Atlantic Salmon weighing over 100 pounds (“American’s Seafood...”, Kantor). These measurements place them in the ranks as one of the largest species of salmon. The large biomass of Atlantic Salmon is important for their survival, particularly during their reproductive cycles. Adult female salmon lay nests of eggs, called “redds”, in the gravely bottoms of rivers. These eggs remain buried in the gravel until they hatch, usually during March and April. These eggs hatch into baby salmon, which are known as “sac fry”. The fry feed on plankton and small invertebrates under the gravel until they are ready to emerge and grow into the “parr” stage of salmon maturity. Parr continue feeding, growing, and maturing while the adult salmon continue to rear and spawn other juveniles. In fact, females will lay close to 7,500 eggs on average every 2-3 winter reproductive cycle while only 15-35% will survive (“Atlantic Salmon (Salmo Salar)”, NOAA). One of the things that sets the atlantic salmon apart from other salmon is that they “anadromous”, meaning that they are usually able to live after spawning. During these reproductive cycles, the adult salmon receive very little to no food. They rely on their fat and muscle stores for the energy required to reproduce and survive during this time, as well as to climb up to 200 miles upstream to their spawning grounds. Aside, the name “salar”, which means the leaper, stems from the Atlantic Salmon’s ability to jump almost 12 feet out of the water in order clear obstacles like rapids and small falls that stand in their way during their trek back upstream (video). Once the juveniles have undergone “smoltification” they are ready for their long marine migration downstream out into much of the NW Atlantic Ocean. Here they feed—on small fish, squid, eels, and shrimp—and intermingle with Atlantic Salmon populations around the world before returning home after another 2-3 winters at sea. One of the most astonishing feats of the Atlantic Salmon is their ability to navigate back to their original spawning grounds. They use smell cues to find the rivers in which they originally were born. In addition to anadromous salmon there are land-locked salmon which migrate between rivers and lakes, leaving out the oceanic portion of migration. Visit the Atlantic Salmon Restoration website for a more in depth description of their life and migratory processes.

Geographic and Population Changes:

 The distribution of Atlantic Salmon includes rivers and the Atlantic Ocean within temperate to sub-polar latitudes. There are three generally recognized groups of Atlantic Salmon: North American, Baltic, and European. The North American group is of particular conservation concern. “Historically the North American group ranged from northern Quebec southeast to Newfoundland and southwest to Long Island Sound” (NOAA). Before the 19^th century Atlantic Salmon runs in New England occurred throughout almost every major river north of the Hudson. Unfortunately, by the 19^th century these salmon were extirpated from 3/5 rivers boasting the largest populations. Furthermore, by the mid-20^th century Atlantic Salmon in the U.S. was largely limited to the eastern third of the coast of Maine. As I said before, this particular recovery plan focuses on the Gulf of Main (GOM) distinct population segment (DPS). The GOM DPS stands as the only segment that supports native, wild Atlantic Salmon populations in the U.S., all of which are extremely low. In fact it is estimated that only 42% of the historical population. The GOM DPS has been further delineated into 3 Salmon Habitat Recovery Units (SHRU’s) in order to adequate distribution of Salmon populations to accommodate metapopulation dynamics.  

Listing Date and Type of Listing:

Atlantic Salmon populations in Maine have been designated as a species of concern since 1997. Unfortunately, the precaution wasn’t heeded and the GOM DPS was listed as an endangered species under the provisions of the Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) in November 2000. The dire situation the species found itself in continued to worsen and Altantic Salmon throughout Maine, outside of the GOM DPS, were listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act in September 2006. Then in June 2009 critical habitat was designated for the GOM DPS by the NOAA. The biological features for critical habitat of Atlantic Salmon include: oxygenated pools with cover, clean and permeable gravel, cool water with diversified food resources to support rearing, freshwater and estuary migration sites free of barriers to support migration, among other factors.

Cause of Listing and Main Threats:

As the only region supporting native, wild Atlantic Salmon the GOM DPS has become increasingly reliant on conservation efforts to keep it afloat. Possibly the biggest threat to Atlantic Salmon in the U.S. are dams which can fragment habitats by creating barriers to passage as well as serve to cause high rates of mortality among Atlantic Salmon. Barriers to passage occur when the fish are migrating back upstream to spawn. Contrarily, when the salmon trek back downstream they are subject to having to travel over the spillway of the dam, through a downstream fish passage built into the dam, or through power-generating turbines. The highest rates of mortality occur when fish pass through the turbines. Dams also have indirect effects on Atlantic Salmon through habitat changes. Another significant factor listed in the recovery plan is inadequate regulations of damns. While many dams are not even fully functional anymore and still do not provide for fish passage, not much is being done by Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) to change this. These two factors require conservation efforts in the rivers and estuaries, but a third significant threat is the survival of Atlantic Salmon in the NW Atlantic Ocean. Marine survival is poor because of things like predation, starvation, diseases and parasites, changing ocean conditions (rising sea temperatures), and overfishing. In recent years, climate change is beginning to become even more of a problem because as salmon go back to the rivers in which they hatch the water temperatures of these rivers are rising too high for redds to survive.

Description of Recovery Plan:

The recovery plan was set forth, in 2009, with the ultimate goal of improving the long-term viability of the GOM DPS Atlantic Salmon population. To achieve viable salmon populations (VSPs) conservation biologists used Shaffer and Stein’s “3r’s” principles: resilience (population health), redundancy (distribution), and representation (genetic diversity). The main focus of this recovery plan is for viability in the freshwater environment of the DPS as factors involved in marine survival under continued examination; although, it should be mentioned that marine survival is the biggest driver for population trends in the GOM DPS. Measurements of population viability, habitat availability, and threat abatement are the 3 fundamental aspects of Atlantic Salmon conservation. In order to assess the success of this recovery plan these 3 aspects must be addressed in terms of the 3r principles.

-Population viability involves increasing the abundance, productivity, and distribution of native, wild Atlantic Salmon. By increasing the abundance and productivity of the populations the resilience of the populations to natural events and other threats will strengthen. Increased Abundance will also provide for increased genetic diversity (representation). While Atlantic salmon do tend to spawn in the same areas each reproductive cycle, limited straying can also help genetic mixing as well as the distribution (redundancy) across the 3 SHRU’s. Analysis has allowed scientists to determine that each SHRU needs at least 2,000 adult salmon returning to spawn in order to achieve rangewide population viability.

-Habitat Availability is important, especially has manmade structures continue to bar salmon from reaching their spawning grounds. Without adequate available habitat in each of the SHRU’s salmon will not be able to spawn which has direct effects on resilience, redundancy, and representation. Scientists have determined that a minimum of 30,000 HU’s per SHRU is necessary in order to achieve desired results.

-Threat abatement is necessary for these other two aspects to increase. Lets take, for example, the threat of dams and manmade structures. These structures decrease the availability of habitat by restricting salmon on their upstream journey to spawning grounds. They also decrease the population viability by accounting for high mortality rates as salmon migrate to the oceans.

By evaluating these conservation aspects and establishing measures to deem them adequately conserved, a four-phase approach has been developed highlighting the key steps in the Atlantic Salmon Recovery Plan:

Phase 1: identify the threats to Atlantic salmon and characterize the habitat needs of the species

Phase 2: use conservation hatcheries to ensure that the GOM DPS persists long enough for the recovery plan to take its course

Phase 3: Use hatchery salmon to help increase the abundance, distribution, and productivity of naturally reared salmon. At the end of this phase delisting should be possible

Phase 4: Achieved when there is a self-sustaining wild population distributed across all 3 SHRU’s .

What you can do:

After being overfished for decades and more recently subject to manmade impediments, Atlantic Salmon populations in the U.S. are at dangerously low levels. Conservationists can only do so much with the resources they are constrained to. Reaching out to others like government officials and conservation agencies is a way to get the conversation started. Staying informed and up to date will give you a perspective on how to help out. Lastly, any donations to efforts help. Visit http://oceana.org/marine-life/ocean-fishes/atlantic-salmon and scroll to the bottom of the page to help out.

Additional resources:

·       “Atlantic Salmon.” Oceana, oceana.org/marine-life/ocean-fishes/atlantic-salmon.

·       “Atlantic Salmon.” U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, www.fws.gov/fisheries/fishmigration/atlantic_salmon.html.

·       Fisheries, NOAA. “Atlantic Salmon (Salmo Salar).” NOAA Fisheries, 14 Jan. 2015, www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/fish/atlantic-salmon.html.

·       Kantor, Linda. “Americans' Seafood Consumption Below Recommendations.” Americans' Seafood Consumption Below Recommendations, 3 Oct. 2016, www.ers.usda.gov/amber-waves/2016/october/americans-seafood-consumption-below-recommendations/.

·       “Life History and Ecology.” Atlantic Salmon Recovery Project, atlanticsalmonrestoration.org/resources/documents/atlantic-salmon-recovery-plan-2015/recovery-plan-pages/life-history-and-ecology.

·       U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and NOAA-Fisheries. 2016. Draft recovery plan for the Gulf of Maine Distinct Population Segment of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar). 61 pp.

San Joaquin Kit Fox - Luke Davies

Recovery Plan for the San Joaquin Kit Fox

Photographs by Mark Chappell (1)

Summary and Description of Ecology and Organism

(2)

The kit fox is the smallest candid species in the North American region, while the San Joaquin kit fox is the largest subspecies in body, body, size and weight. Kit foxes have small slender body and larger ears that are close together, with a narrow nose and a long bushy tail. The fox ranges in size with the males being roughly 32 inches long, weighing 5 pounds, and the females averaging at about 30 inches in length and weighing 4.6 pounds. The San Joaquin kit fox develops two coats depending on the season, a tan summer coat and a silvery grey winter coat. Its diet varies based on seasonality and range, also depends on the abundance of potential prey. In the southern portion of their range, the like to feast on Kangaroo Rats, Pocket Mice, White Footed Mice and other nocturnal rodents. These rodents consist of about 1/3 of their diet. They also prey on smaller squirrels and nesting birds. Vegetation and insects commonly occur in their fleeces as well. Kit foxes breed within their first year and will often stay with the same mate throughout that year. Female foxes start preparing pupping dens during September and October. Breeding and conception usually occurs from January through March, producing litters ranging from 2 - 6 pups. While nursing the female fox is rarely seen hunting, while the male provides for the female and their pups.

Geographic and Population Changes

(2)

The San Joaquin Kit Foxes can be found in the Kings, Tulare, Fresno, Madera, San Benito, Merced, Stanislaus and Monterrey counties. The overall lifespan of the kit fox is 2 to 8 years depending on location. It is more common to find younger foxes rather than older ones because the mortality rate for foxes one year or less is 70%, while the mortality rate for foxes over one year is around 50%. The kit fox population and reproduction depends on rainfall each year. If there is a lot of rainfall, the there are more foxes, where as in drier years, less foxes. Kit fox populations have gone down in size due to open grassland turning into farmland, housing developments and roads have made it difficult for foxes to find mates, along with prey. This has had an impact in the decline of fox population in the San Joaquin valley. 

Listing Date and Type of Listing

The San Joaquin Kit Fox was Listed on the Endangered list as of March 11th, 1967. It is endangered wherever it may be found, which is generally central California up the the bay area. (3)

Cause of Listing and Main Threats (4)

(4)

Kit foxes use to thrive in the Central Valley region, inhabiting native grasslands. As development occurred, their habitat became less and less, and encounters with humans have become problematic. Many of their native grasslands, have been converted to farmland, putting up fences and barriers, fragmenting their habitat. This causes the fox to often have issues finding food, and mates. Often when reproducing, since the female fox cannot hunt while nursing, the male fox sometimes can only find food for himself, while his female mate goes hungry.  Kit foxes main source of food is rodents and small insects, but will get into whatever they can find. For this reason, they often take advantage of whatever is available to them, including garbage and domestic pet food. When this happens their natural behavior changes, allowing them to lose fear of human interaction. They often get caught in sports nets, poisons and get hit by vehicles in the search for food.

Description of Recovery Plan (5)

Objective: The ultimate goal of this recovery plan is to delist the 11 endangered and threatened species and ensure the long-term conservation of the 23 candidates and species of concern. An interim goal is to reclassify the endangered species to threatened status.

Six sections of the recovery plan: 

(5)

1. Recovery: This includes protection from development in order to preserve as much of the Fox's natural habitat as possible. The plan hopes to recover the species to its natural populations by implementing habitat management plans and identify areas for protection to allow for the fox to eventually become self sustaining. 
2. Habitat Protection: Considering that habitat loss is the main cause of population decline, a general goal is to establish a network of conservation areas and reserves, while preserving natural lands. Implementing blocks of conservation linkages is also a crucial goal, to provide movement between different conservation areas. 
3. Umbrella and keystone species: It is crucial to protect the Kit Fox because it provides a pivotal role in their habitat and enhancing the species below them. 
4. Monitoring and Research program: The recovery plan has been developed based on the best research to date. The program will continue to monitor and make changes as necessary in working towards recovery. 
5. Adaptive Management: This type of management allows for some type of management to be applied, then the population response is monitored. After seeing how the fox responds, the management plan will be adjusted to best achieve the goal of recovery. 
6. Economic and Social Considerations: This plan targets six tactics in which to reduce the cost of recovery. 
1. Focusing recovery, to the maximum extent possible, on lands already in public or conservation ownership,
2. Encouraging continuation of traditional land uses, such as seasonal livestock grazing, oil production, hunting, and wildland recreation, when compatible with listed species management needs,
3. Targeting agricultural land that must be retired, due to drainage problems or lack of irrigation water, for restoration to provide linkages or additional habitat for listed species,
4. Developing a safe harbor program as an incentive for landowners to maintain or create endangered species habitat on their property,
5. Developing other positive incentives, especially economic, for conservation, and
6. Tying, as closely as possible, the habitat protection network to local and regional conservation planning efforts, including habitat conservation plans.

Total Costs of Recovery: 

• Priority 1 tasks: $19,200,500
• Priority 2 tasks: $17,253,500
• Priority 3 tasks: $3,650,000

What can you do? 

(6)

• Never feed a kit fox, or other wildlife and keep pets indoors. 
• Remove sources of water
• Seal trash containers to prevent access
• Put away bird feeders at night to avoid attracting rodents and other prey. 
• Pick up fallen fruit and cover compost piles. 
• Don't trap stray cats in areas used by kit foxes. Trapped foxes could get injured and their pups are vulnerable when unattended. 
• Never fill or destroy a burrow that may be used by kit foxes. State and federal laws protect their burrows. 
• Take down sports nets at schools, parks and other recreational facilities when not is use. Store furled and out of reach, especially at night. 
• Avoid the use of rodent poisons in kit fox habitat. 

Other Resources

The San Joaquin Kit Fox needs our help. If you live in the affected areas, here is a video that could help you better understand its issues and what you can do to help. 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-ymStkY0lA0&t=78s

Sources: 

(1) https://ecos.fws.gov/docs/recovery_plan/980930a.pdf
(2) https://defenders.org/san-joaquin-kit-fox/basic-facts

(3) https://ecos.fws.gov/ecp0/profile/speciesProfile?spcode=A006

(4) https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Keep-Me-Wild/Kit-Fox

(5) http://esrp.csustan.edu/publications/pubhtml.php?doc=sjvrp&file=execsum.html

Images: 

(1) https://www.google.com/search?q=san+joaquin+kit+fox+recovery+plan&rlz=1C1FLDB_enUS697US697&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi56vqSjdzZAhVHqVQKHdmKBsQQ_AUICigB&biw=1920&bih=940#imgrc=oRbuKZbQJX_9kM:

(2)https://www.google.com/search?q=san+joaquin+kit+fox+recovery+plan&rlz=1C1FLDB_enUS697US697&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi56vqSjdzZAhVHqVQKHdmKBsQQ_AUICigB&biw=1920&bih=940#imgrc=pd38Ud75JE2iOM:

(3)https://www.google.com/search?q=san+joaquin+kit+fox+recovery+plan&rlz=1C1FLDB_enUS697US697&source=lnms&tbm=isch&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi56vqSjdzZAhVHqVQKHdmKBsQQ_AUICigB&biw=1920&bih=940#imgrc=2pE18X9gJnK3cM:

(4) https://www.wildlife.ca.gov/Keep-Me-Wild/Kit-Fox

(5) https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1FLDB_enUS697US697&biw=1920&bih=940&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=gt2gWtYTx__SAuiAppgN&q=recovery+plan&oq=recovery+plan&gs_l=psy-ab.3...7773.7773.0.8035.1.1.0.0.0.0.0.0..0.0....0...1c.1.64.psy-ab..1.0.0....0.SxeazM-Jzc4#imgrc=B3XERKeODNRpaM:

(6) https://www.google.com/search?rlz=1C1FLDB_enUS697US697&biw=1920&bih=940&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=it2gWsK3L8KB0wLQ-p-IDg&q=what+to+do&oq=what+to+do&gs_l=psy-ab.3..0l10.2086.3091.0.3298.10.9.0.1.1.0.132.771.7j2.9.0....0...1c.1.64.psy-ab..0.10.773...0i67k1.0.p01Qxvmel5o#imgrc=H5RKXCFu4FyV-M:

Saving the Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit – Iain Dunn

Saving the Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit – Iain Dunn

Photo courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

Who is this little bunny?

The incredibly cute Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit happens to be the smallest species of rabbit in all of North America. Not only is this little critter cute, but also it is very resourceful, as they are the only rabbit that digs their own burrows. For over 100,000 years, this pygmy rabbit has lived along a stretch of land all the way from northern Oregon to Central Washington, called the Columbia Basin. What distinctly makes this rabbit unique from other pygmy rabbits, is the fact that it was separated roughly 10,000 years ago from the rest of the population, causing genetically different species. These rabbits thrive in the Great Basin’s semiarid shrub steppe, as well as other regions between mountains in the western United States. Normally, pygmy rabbits are located amongst sagebrush (especially the denser, taller areas). Since the pygmy rabbit digs its own burrows, it also prefers regions with soils that are more loose, to grant ease in digging the burrows.

This map depicts the Columbia Basin outlined in red, along with potentially habitable area in green

Up-close look at the Columbia Basin

The scientific name for the Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit is Brachylagus idahoensis, and it in the Leporidae family (which includes hares and rabbits). When I said the pygmy rabbit was small, I meant it—it weighs in at approximately 375g to 500g, and measures approximately 23.5 to 29.5 centimeters long. The females tend to be on the longer end of the spectrum, while males tend to be on the shorter end. Every year they molt their fur. Their color is mostly a grayish brown color, while their stomachs are off-white, and their extremities are brown. They have small ears (3.5cm to 5.2 cm) and small tails too (1.5cm to 2.4cm). These tiny attributes are part of what make the pygmy rabbit a distinct species from other rabbits, along with its grayish color and missing white fur on its tail.

When did these critters become known as endangered?

The Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit became an endangered species in 2001, when an emergency regulation was enacted. Then in 2003, the pygmy rabbit was entirely listed as endangered.

"Shrub Steppe" courtesy of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 

Why did the pygmy rabbit become endangered in the first place?

The #1 cause of the pygmy’s population decline is most likely attributed to the development of new agriculture lands, which destroyed the pygmy’s shrub steppe environment. This lack of habitable environment, along with the pygmy’s small population caused the little rabbit to truly become endangered. Not only was the small population an issue due to the fact that there were few remaining—the remaining few had slim genetic diversity since they inbred with each other repeatedly. There are five threats specifically listed in the pygmy’s recovery plan:

1. Destruction or vast modification of the pygmy’s natural habitat due to crop production

2. Accidentally harming the pygmies due to recreational hunting and scientific trappings

3.     Diseases due to the large number of parasites pygmies carry, which are vectors for transmission; as well as predation from other animals

4.     Lack of regulation for the habitable pygmy area

5.     Natural causes, such as storms or fires

So how many of these cuties are still out there?

In early 2004, the Columbia Basin saw its last wild population of pygmy rabbits, and they became extirpated. After the Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit was declared as an endangered species, a captive breeding program was started in 2001 by the Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife. In 2003, this effort to expand the population was furthered when a cross-breeding strategy was developed; this was done by capturing pygmy rabbits from Idaho under the same taxonomic classification, and then “inducing” controlled matings. 20 of these adorable cross-bred pygmies were released into the central Washington part of the Columbia Basin in March, 2007. Unfortunately, none of these pygmies survived to see the summer of 2008. Since the first round of pygmies were unsuccessful, new approaches were adopted and implemented in the summer of 2011:

Photo courtesy of Oregon Zoo

•      More releasing events of cross-bred pygmies
•     Capturing and relocating wild pygmy rabbits not of Columbia Basin origin, into the same areas as the program released cross-bred pygmies
•    Efforts to partially control breeding in the field
• Better protection at the time of release

Fortunately, these new approaches have proved to be successful, and by the end of July 2012, three facilities operating the pygmy rabbit captive breeding ended their programs.

What were the steps of the recovery plan?

The pygmy rabbit’s recovery followed a phased approach. The phases were as follows:

1.     Remove threats to the pygmies and their habitat

2.     Reintroduce a stable amount of pygmies to their natural habitat

3.     Protect the established pygmies

Photo courtesy of Oregon Zoo

The ultimate goal is to classify the Columbia Basin Pygmy Rabbit as threatened species, rather than an endangered species. This will be done through continuing to adjust and implement the recovery steps as needed; to ensure the pygmy population remains at a stable level that is distributed appropriately.

You can help!

The pygmy rabbit’s conservation is mainly in the hands of biologists, but you can abstain from hunting in shrub steppe habitats to ensure the safety of its inhabitants. However, you can get involved and volunteer at your local environmental and/or animal welfare centers! As well as do your research on the pygmy rabbit and other endangered species. Educate yourself on this important topic by doing in-depth research, so that you can have a deeper understanding of the issue through looking at a wide-variety of informational sources.

More resources: 

To begin your deeper self-understanding and perspective on this topic, included is a link and video to more information on the Oregon Zoo’s recovery efforts:

 Oregon Zoo's Success

Works Cited

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2012. Recovery Plan for the Columbia Basin Distinct Population Segment of the Pygmy Rabbit (Brachylagus idahoensis). Portland, Oregon. ix + 109 pp.